00:00:00.000 When someone says, I know X and X is any claim at all, what they're not actually saying
00:00:10.400 is I am certain that X is the case, or even I am justified in believing that X. Know what
00:00:17.280 they actually mean is the best idea I have at the moment is X and I've got no good criticism
00:00:22.760 of X. When people say they know X, they're not saying they can't actually change their
00:00:28.680 mind. Yes, of course, some people are dogmatists and claim not to doubt X when X is either
00:00:33.920 something really obvious or something that's really important to them. But they're thinking
00:00:37.760 these things does not change the true structure of knowledge, for that they are in fact,
00:00:42.320 like all of us, fallible humans. People are always fallible with prone to error. We should
00:00:48.240 know that even if they claim to have no doubts, we should doubt that very claim. Or better
00:00:53.320 yet, understand that if they thought better about these things and they would, like us,
00:00:58.080 understand that although knowledge is genuinely possible, the feeling that one is certain
00:01:03.440 is no guarantee at all that one is in possession of the final ultimate truth. That final
00:01:08.600 ultimate truth is something we aim for, but it's not something we can ever know to have
00:01:13.160 obtained the justified true belief mistake, which was handed down to us from Plato, remains
00:01:18.760 deeply ingrained in our language, in our ways of thinking about knowledge. But it's just
00:01:23.680 that, it's a mistake. Knowledge isn't anything to do with being justified true, which
00:01:29.280 is to say in some way finally shown not to be possibly false. And nor is it about the beliefs
00:01:34.960 of people. What's said to be going on solely in conscious minds, instead, knowledge is very
00:01:40.840 much a real thing out there. And it's not just imagined, it's abstract, and it's instantiated
00:01:46.640 in physical objects. In other words, physical structures are arranged in particular ways in order
00:01:52.200 to code the knowledge. So, for example, brains in code knowledge. But so do our computers
00:01:58.120 and telescopes. All those structures encode causal relationships between objects, so that
00:02:04.040 something useful can be done with the information. Popper understood that knowledge is real
00:02:10.520 and possible, but many people think he rejected knowledge because they think he's entire
00:02:14.640 philosophy is about falsificationism. So they think the purpose philosophy says something
00:02:19.120 like, you can be sure about those things you have falsified but not about anything else,
00:02:23.880 or something like that. But that's wider than that completely. Popper did not think
00:02:28.160 you could be sure, as in certain or absolutely 100% without a doubt for all times satisfied
00:02:32.520 that anything was true or false. Now we didn't believe in confidence levels at all. Everything
00:02:39.200 we know is always conjectural, which is to say tentative or provisional. It contains truth,
00:02:45.760 but it's not the final truth. Knowledge claims are explanations about what is true, falsification
00:02:51.760 or refutation more broadly rules out some explanations. The eerie as ideas, hypotheses,
00:02:58.240 has been good explanations. A data-doid sharpened up this idea even more. An experimental
00:03:03.640 refutation makes a theory almost impossible to vary in such a way as to account for
00:03:08.560 the refutation. We know something when we've an explanation, when we've found an answer
00:03:14.080 to a problem. We have obtained knowledge when we've discovered something that allows
00:03:19.160 us to move forward. None of this means we need to be justified or certain or believe that
00:03:24.320 what we're doing is virtuous. Knowledge is just useful information. Useful because it solves
00:03:30.120 a problem. And it solves a problem because it accounts. But how it does? That is to say,
